China’s history stretches back thousands of years, making it one of the world’s oldest civilizations. From ancient dynasties to modern times, it has grown into a global powerhouse. But along the way, China has also taken control of several regions, often sparking debate and tension. Places like Tibet, Xinjiang (also called Uyghur East Turkistan), Hong Kong, Taiwan, Manchuria, and Southern Mongolia are at the heart of these disputes, with many calling them “occupied territories.” This article looks at China’s past, how it expanded its borders, and why these areas remain such a big issue today, May 15, 2025. We’ll explore the history step by step, using simple words to understand this complicated story.
Ancient China: The Roots of a Civilization
China’s story begins around 2000 BCE with the Xia Dynasty, though some say it’s more legend than fact. The first real proof comes with the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE), known for early writing on oracle bones and bronze work. The Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) followed, introducing the idea of the “Mandate of Heaven,” which said rulers were chosen by the gods but could lose power if they failed the people. This shaped China’s thinking for centuries. By the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), China unified under Emperor Qin Shi Huang, who built the Great Wall’s early parts to keep out invaders. The Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) expanded trade, like the Silk Road, connecting China to the world.
The Great Wall’s Early Days
The Great Wall started taking shape under the Qin Dynasty around 221 BCE. Emperor Qin Shi Huang wanted to protect China from northern tribes like the Xiongnu. He linked older walls built by smaller states during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). Workers used earth, wood, and stone, often under harsh conditions—many died during construction. Later dynasties, like the Han and Ming, added to it, making the wall over 13,000 miles long. It wasn’t just for defense; it also helped control trade and movement. Today, it’s a symbol of China’s ancient strength and determination to secure its borders.
The Silk Road’s Role in Growth
The Silk Road began during the Han Dynasty, around 130 BCE, and became a major trade route. It stretched from China to Europe, passing through Central Asia and the Middle East. Chinese silk, tea, and paper were traded for goods like glass, spices, and gold. More than goods, the Silk Road brought ideas—Buddhism spread into China this way. It also carried diseases, like the plague, which hurt populations. The route helped China grow rich and influential, connecting it to far-off lands. By the time the Han Dynasty ended in 220 CE, China was a key player in global trade.
Imperial Expansion: How China Grew Its Borders
China’s borders expanded under powerful dynasties. The Han Dynasty pushed into Central Asia, Korea, and northern Vietnam, spreading Chinese culture. The Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) was a golden age, controlling areas as far as modern-day Afghanistan. They set up protectorates, like in Xinjiang, to manage distant regions. The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), led by the Mongols, stretched China’s reach even further, from the Pacific to Eastern Europe. The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), China’s last, took Tibet, Taiwan, Manchuria, Southern Mongolia, and Xinjiang under its wing. But this growth often came with conflict, as local people resisted Chinese rule, setting the stage for modern disputes.
The Tang Dynasty’s Reach
The Tang Dynasty, starting in 618 CE, was one of China’s strongest periods. They expanded into Central Asia, setting up military outposts in places like Xinjiang and even reaching modern-day Afghanistan. The Tang controlled the Silk Road, which brought wealth and culture. They also influenced Korea and Japan, spreading art, writing, and Buddhism. But this expansion wasn’t always peaceful—local tribes often fought back, and the Tang had to station armies far from home. By the time the dynasty fell in 907 CE, China had grown huge, but managing such a big empire became tough, leading to rebellions and invasions.
The Qing Dynasty’s Control
The Qing Dynasty, starting in 1644, was China’s last imperial rulers. They were Manchus, not Han Chinese, but they adopted Chinese ways. The Qing took over Tibet in 1720, sending troops to control the region after unrest. They also claimed Taiwan in 1683, after defeating Ming loyalists there. Xinjiang came under Qing rule in the 1750s, after battles with the Dzungar Mongols. They also solidified control over Manchuria and Southern Mongolia during their reign. The Qing used a mix of military force and diplomacy, appointing local leaders to govern under their watch. But their harsh rule often led to resentment, especially in Tibet, Xinjiang, and Mongolia, where people felt their culture and freedom were under threat.
Manchuria: From Homeland to Chinese Control
Manchuria, in northeast China, has a deep history tied to the Manchu people. Before the Qing Dynasty, it was a separate region with its own tribes, like the Jurchens, who became the Manchus. In 1644, the Manchus overthrew the Ming Dynasty, establishing the Qing and ruling China. But after the Qing fell in 1912, Manchuria’s fate shifted. Japan invaded in 1931, setting up a puppet state called Manchukuo. After World War II, China took it back in 1945, and by 1949, Mao’s Communist government fully annexed it. Today, Manchuria is part of China’s Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang provinces, but its history as a distinct region still fuels debate about Chinese control.
The Manchu Rise and Qing Rule
The Manchus, originally Jurchen tribes, united under leader Nurhaci in the late 1500s. By 1644, they defeated the Ming Dynasty, founding the Qing Dynasty and ruling China for nearly 300 years. Manchuria, their homeland, became a key part of the empire, but the Qing kept it separate, limiting Han Chinese settlement to preserve Manchu culture. They called it the “Dragon’s Lair,” a sacred region. Over time, though, Han settlers moved in, especially during famines, changing the area’s makeup. By the Qing’s end in 1912, Manchuria was more integrated, but its distinct identity remained, setting the stage for later conflicts and annexation.
Japan’s Occupation and China’s Takeover
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, creating Manchukuo, a puppet state led by the last Qing emperor, Puyi. Japan exploited the region’s resources, like coal and iron, until their defeat in 1945. After World War II, Soviet troops briefly occupied Manchuria, but handed it to China’s Nationalist government. By 1949, Mao’s Communists won the civil war and fully annexed Manchuria into the People’s Republic of China. They renamed it Northeast China, dividing it into provinces like Liaoning. The region’s Manchu identity faded as China encouraged Han migration, but some locals still feel their history was erased, as seen in small cultural protests on X in 2025.
Southern Mongolia: China’s Grip on the Steppes
Southern Mongolia, also called Inner Mongolia, lies south of modern Mongolia and has been under Chinese control since the Qing Dynasty. The Mongols, a nomadic people, lived there for centuries, united under Genghis Khan in the 1200s. After the Yuan Dynasty fell in 1368, the Mongols split into groups. The Qing conquered Southern Mongolia in the 1630s, encouraging Han Chinese to settle and farm the land. By 1947, China’s Communist government made it the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, but many Mongols say their culture has been suppressed. Today, tensions continue over land use and language rights.
Qing Conquest of Southern Mongolia
The Qing Dynasty began taking Southern Mongolia in the 1630s, after the Mongol leader Ligdan Khan died. The Qing offered Mongol nobles titles to gain loyalty, but also sent troops to crush resistance. They divided the region into banners, a system to control the nomads, and encouraged Han Chinese to settle there, turning grasslands into farms. This caused friction, as Mongols relied on herding. By the 1700s, Southern Mongolia was firmly under Qing rule, with Han settlers outnumbering locals. The Qing’s policies weakened Mongol traditions, setting the stage for later cultural struggles when China’s modern government took over in 1949.
Inner Mongolia’s Modern Challenges
In 1947, China’s Communists established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, promising self-governance. But by 2025, many Mongols feel this autonomy is a sham. China has pushed Han migration, making Mongols a minority—only 20% of the population, per a 2025 BBC report. In 2020, protests erupted over a policy to teach more classes in Mandarin, not Mongolian, and tensions continue. Herders also face land grabs for mining, as seen in a Hohhot protest in April 2025, per Radio Free Asia. Mongols say their language and way of life are fading, and China’s tight control makes it hard to push back, fueling calls for cultural preservation.
Tibet: A History of Struggle Under China
Tibet’s history with China goes back centuries, but it became a major issue in the 20th century. Tibet was mostly independent under the Qing Dynasty, with its own leaders and Buddhist culture. In 1912, after the Qing fell, Tibet declared itself free. But in 1950, Mao Zedong’s Communist China sent troops to take over, calling it a “peaceful liberation.” The Dalai Lama, Tibet’s spiritual leader, signed a 17-point agreement in 1951, accepting Chinese rule but hoping for autonomy. A 1959 uprising failed, and the Dalai Lama fled to India, where he still lives. Today, China governs Tibet tightly, with many Tibetans protesting for freedom.
The 1950 Invasion and Its Aftermath
In October 1950, Chinese troops marched into Tibet, claiming it was part of China since the Yuan Dynasty. They met little resistance at first, as Tibet’s army was small. The 17-point agreement, signed in 1951, promised Tibet some freedom, but China soon broke this deal, forcing Communist reforms. Monasteries were destroyed, and locals were pushed to follow Chinese laws. In 1959, Tibetans in Lhasa rebelled, but China crushed the uprising. The Dalai Lama escaped to India, setting up a government-in-exile. Since then, Tibetans have faced strict control, with China building roads and bringing in Han Chinese settlers, which many see as a way to erase Tibetan culture.
Tibet Today: Ongoing Tensions
As of May 15, 2025, Tibet remains under tight Chinese control. The Dalai Lama, now 89, still advocates for autonomy from India, but China calls him a separatist. Protests in Tibet are rare but happen—like a small demonstration in Lhasa in March 2025, quickly stopped by police, as reported by Radio Free Asia. China has invested heavily in Tibet, building infrastructure like the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, but many Tibetans say this benefits Chinese settlers more. Human rights groups, like Amnesty International, report limits on religious practices and free speech. The world watches, but China’s grip on Tibet shows no sign of loosening.
Uyghur East Turkistan: China’s Annexation of Xinjiang
Xinjiang, often called Uyghur East Turkistan by its people, has been under Chinese rule since the Qing Dynasty. The Uyghurs, a Muslim, Turkic-speaking group, lived there for centuries. The Qing took control in the 1750s, after defeating the Dzungar Mongols, renaming it Xinjiang, meaning “New Frontier.” After the Qing fell in 1912, the region saw brief independence, but China reasserted control in 1949 under Mao. Since 2017, China has detained over 1 million Uyghurs in camps, sparking global outcry. The history of annexation and current policies show the ongoing clash between Uyghur identity and Chinese rule.
The Qing Takeover of East Turkistan
The Qing Dynasty annexed Xinjiang, or East Turkistan, in the 1750s after a long campaign against the Dzungar Mongols, who ruled the area. The Qing killed or displaced many Dzungars, a brutal move called genocide by some historians. They then settled Han and Hui Chinese in the region to secure control, offering land to farmers. Uyghurs, who had their own Islamic culture, resisted Qing rule through uprisings, like one in 1864 that briefly freed the area. The Qing crushed these revolts, setting up a military governor to oversee Xinjiang. By 1884, Xinjiang was made a province, fully integrated into the empire, but Uyghur resentment lingered.
Modern Xinjiang: Camps and Criticism
Since 2017, China has put over 1 million Uyghurs in detention camps, as reported by the UN and BBC in 2025. China calls them “vocational training centers” to fight extremism after attacks blamed on Uyghur separatists. But leaked documents, like the 2019 Xinjiang Papers, show forced labor, family separations, and cultural suppression. The U.S. imposed sanctions in 2021, and in 2025, the EU renewed calls for investigations, per Reuters. China denies wrongdoing, saying it’s lifted Xinjiang’s economy with projects like the Belt and Road Initiative. Still, global pressure grows, with protests in cities like London in April 2025 demanding justice for Uyghurs.
Hong Kong: From British Rule to Chinese Control
Hong Kong’s story is different. It was a British colony from 1842 until 1997, when Britain handed it back to China under the “one country, two systems” deal. This promised Hong Kong freedom in its laws and economy for 50 years. But since 2020, China has cracked down, passing a National Security Law that limits free speech. Protests in 2019 saw millions demand democracy, but China arrested activists and shut down opposition. Today, Hong Kong’s freedoms are shrinking, and many call it another occupied territory under Beijing’s tight grip.
The 1997 Handover and Promises
On July 1, 1997, Britain returned Hong Kong to China after 155 years of colonial rule. The deal, signed in 1984, said Hong Kong would keep its way of life—free press, courts, and economy—until 2047. China called it a “Special Administrative Region.” At first, things seemed fine, but over time, Beijing started meddling. By 2014, protests erupted over election rules, and in 2019, a proposed law to send criminals to China sparked massive rallies. China’s response was harsh, showing it wouldn’t tolerate dissent, even under the “one country, two systems” promise.
Hong Kong’s 2025 Reality
As of May 15, 2025, Hong Kong’s freedoms are fading fast. The 2020 National Security Law led to over 10,000 arrests, per Human Rights Watch. Pro-democracy leaders like Joshua Wong remain in jail, and media outlets like Apple Daily have shut down. In March 2025, China passed new laws banning “subversive” acts, further limiting speech, as reported by South China Morning Post. Many Hong Kongers have left—over 200,000 moved to the UK since 2021, using a special visa program. The city’s vibrant democracy movement is now underground, and China’s control feels stronger than ever.
Taiwan: A Long-Standing Dispute
Taiwan’s history with China is a tense one. After the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the Nationalist government fled to Taiwan, setting up the Republic of China, while Mao’s Communists took the mainland, forming the People’s Republic of China. Both claimed to be China’s true government, but over time, Taiwan became a democracy. China insists Taiwan is part of its territory and has threatened to take it by force if needed. Taiwan, backed by the U.S., wants to stay independent. This standoff remains a global hotspot in 2025.
The 1949 Split and Its Roots
The split happened in 1949 after years of fighting. The Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek, lost to Mao’s Communists and fled to Taiwan with 2 million supporters. They set up a government, hoping to retake the mainland. But Mao’s forces were too strong, and the two sides stayed divided. Taiwan grew into a democracy by the 1990s, while China remained Communist. China sees Taiwan as a breakaway province, but most Taiwanese see themselves as a separate nation. This disagreement has kept tensions high for over 70 years, with no easy solution in sight.
Taiwan’s Status in 2025
On May 15, 2025, Taiwan remains a flashpoint. China has increased military drills near the island, with 30 warplanes spotted in April 2025, per Reuters. The U.S. continues to support Taiwan, selling $2 billion in arms in 2025, as reported by CNN. Taiwan’s President, Lai Ching-te, elected in 2024, pushes for independence, which angers Beijing. China’s leader, Xi Jinping, said in a January 2025 speech that “reunification is inevitable.” Posts on X show global worry about a possible conflict, with some calling it the “next Ukraine.” For now, Taiwan stands firm, but the future is uncertain as China’s pressure grows.
Why These Territories Matter Today
China’s control over Tibet, Xinjiang, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Manchuria, and Southern Mongolia isn’t just a history lesson—it shapes the world in 2025. These areas are key for China’s economy and security. Xinjiang and Tibet have resources like oil and minerals, while Hong Kong is a financial hub. Taiwan’s tech industry makes chips for the world. Manchuria and Southern Mongolia offer coal, iron, and farmland. But China’s tight grip has sparked global backlash, with sanctions and protests. It also fuels tension with the U.S. and India, especially after border clashes in 2025, per BBC. These territories highlight the clash between China’s goals and the rights of local people, a debate that’s far from over.
Resources and Strategic Importance
Xinjiang has oil and gas, making it vital for China’s energy needs, as noted by the Council on Foreign Relations. Tibet’s rivers feed much of Asia, giving China control over water. Hong Kong handles 60% of China’s foreign investment, per Bloomberg in 2025. Taiwan produces 90% of the world’s advanced chips, per Reuters. Manchuria has coal and iron, while Southern Mongolia supplies rare earth minerals, key for tech. These regions also sit on trade routes, like the Belt and Road in Xinjiang. China’s control ensures access to these assets, but it comes at a cost—local unrest and global criticism over human rights, which could hurt China’s economy if sanctions grow.
Global Reactions and Tensions
The world hasn’t stayed quiet. The U.S. and EU have sanctioned China over Xinjiang, with new measures in 2025 targeting Chinese firms, per The Guardian. India, after border clashes in Ladakh in April 2025, banned more Chinese apps, as reported by Hindustan Times. Protests in cities like Tokyo and New York in 2025 show global anger over Tibet, Hong Kong, and Southern Mongolia, per Al Jazeera. These reactions strain China’s ties with major powers, pushing it closer to allies like Russia. The debate over these territories isn’t just local—it’s a global issue, affecting trade, tech, and peace.
By- ASHUTOSH SINGH
